Objectives
At the completion of this chapter the student should be able to:
- Discuss the Physical Properties of Sound Waves
- Discuss the Sound Wave Interaction with Tissues
- Explain Transducers
Sound Waves
Sound waves are mechanical vibrations that induce alternate
rarefaction (expansion) and
compression of any physical medium through which the sound wave travels
. Sound waves have four physical properties: (Figure 1.1.1)
- Discuss the Physical Properties of Sound Waves
- Discuss the Sound Wave Interaction with Tissues
- Explain Transducers
Figure2 1.1.1
The
wavelength
is the length of one wave cycle (i.e. from peak to peak) which includes
one rarefaction and one compression and is measured in millimeters
(mm). The
propagation velocity
is the velocity of the wave through a medium. The propagation velocity
is dependent upon the medium's characteristics (i.e. density,
temperature). The propagation velocity of average human tissue is
1540 m/sec. In Table 1.1.2 common propagation velocities are listed for different tissues.
Tissue
Type |
Sound
(m/sec) |
Air |
330 |
Fat |
1450 |
Water |
1480 |
Average Human Soft Tissue |
1540 |
Brain |
1540 |
Liver |
1550 |
Kidney |
1560 |
Blood |
1570 |
Muscle |
1580 |
Lens of Eye |
1620 |
Skull Bone |
4080 |
Table 1.1.2 Velocity of Sound in Biologic Tissues |
The
frequency
of a sound wave is the number of cycles of a sound wave per second or
Hertz (Hz). The frequency can be calculated by dividing wavelength by
time (Figure 1.1.3). A small wavelength will yield a higher frequency,
whereas a larger wavelength will yield a smaller frequency. The human hearing range is 20-20,000 Hz. Ultrasound is greater than 20,000
Hz. Medical ultrasound is typically 1-20 MHz, or megahertz
. One megahertz(MHz) is equal to 1 million Hertz.
f = cycles / sec
Figure 1.1.5 Frequency Formula
Relationship between Wavelength, Frequency, and Propagation
Propagation velocity,
c, is the product of wavelength and frequency
. If the medium is human soft tissue, then the propagation velocity (
c) is
1540 m/sec. The wavelength can be calculated by dividing 1540 m/sec by the frequency. Note that
wavelength is inversely proportional to frequency. A higher frequency will have a shorter wavelength.
Penetration
As the ultrasound beam penetrates a medium, the beam is attenuated
or loses energy. As a beam penetrates tissue, some of the beam is
reflected, refracted or absorbed as heat generation. The amount of
penetration will determine the depth of the scanning area. Penetration is directly related to wavelength.
Smaller wavelengths are more easily reflected or refracted in the
superficial tissues than longer wavelengths. As wavelength is increased
(or frequency decreased) the ultrasound will penetrate deeper. As the
wavelength is decreased (or frequency is increased) the ultrasound beam
will have a shallower penetration. Low frequency ultrasound has superior
penetration.
Resolution and Penetration Relationship
At the high penetration/low resolution settings the deeper structures
are more easily visualized at the loss of resolution of the more
superficial structures. At the opposite setting, the high resolution/low
penetration setting, the deep structures are not well visualized while
the superficial structures are sharp and exhibit enhanced detail.
Video 1.1 High Penetration/Low Resolution
Video 1.2 Mixed Setting
Video 1.3 Low Penetration/High Resolution
Amplitude
Amplitude is equivalent to
loudness. If the echocardiographic machine cannot 'hear' the returned
signal (echo) then, if the machine 'yells louder', it may hear the
louder echo.
2D Echocardiography uses a change in amplitude to display images.
Returned signals that have a higher amplitude are displayed as brighter
than returned signals with a smaller amplitude. Doppler uses a change in
frequency to display images. A returned signal that has a much higher
frequency will be displayed with a higher velocity color, whereas, a
signal with the lower frequency will be displayed with a lower velocity
color. A display that has both 2D and Doppler images displayed
simultaneously is called a duplex image or a duplex scan.